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                    <text>Catalog page with illustrations of six upright pianos labeled Imperial, Royal, Columbian, Rococo, Favorite, and Peerless.</text>
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The Exposition included educational exhibits as well as a Midway. The educational exhibits showcased the latest advancements in technology, most notably electricity. A major feature was electric lighting which utilized hydroelectric power generated in nearby Niagara Falls. Many of the Exposition buildings, including the prominent Electric Tower, were covered in light-bulbs creating a beautiful and unprecedented sight. The Pan-American Exposition also hosted some of the top engine manufacturers of the time. These companies provided “working exhibits” that actually functioned in the day-to-day operation of the Exposition. The Midway at the Pan-American Exposition provided visitors with entertainment and consisted of more than 42 exhibits. Some of the main attractions of the Midway included the “House Upside Down,” “Cleopatra’s Temple”, and the “Foreign Villages.”&#13;
&#13;
The Pan-American Exposition is most widely known as the location of President McKinley’s assassination. On September 6, 1901, while in a receiving line at the Exposition’s Temple of Music, President McKinley was shot twice by anarchist, Leon Czolgosz. McKinley was taken to the Exposition’s hospital where he was operated on by a number of prominent Buffalo surgeons including Roswell Park. The President was then taken to the home of John Milburn, head of the Exposition’s Board of Directors, to recover.  After his condition appeared to improve, McKinley eventually died on September 14, 1901 in the Milburn home due to infection and gangrene from the gun shot wounds.&#13;
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                <text>Pan-American Exhibition (1901) Styles of Ludwig Pianos</text>
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&#13;
The Exposition included educational exhibits as well as a Midway. The educational exhibits showcased the latest advancements in technology, most notably electricity. A major feature was electric lighting which utilized hydroelectric power generated in nearby Niagara Falls. Many of the Exposition buildings, including the prominent Electric Tower, were covered in light-bulbs creating a beautiful and unprecedented sight. The Pan-American Exposition also hosted some of the top engine manufacturers of the time. These companies provided “working exhibits” that actually functioned in the day-to-day operation of the Exposition. The Midway at the Pan-American Exposition provided visitors with entertainment and consisted of more than 42 exhibits. Some of the main attractions of the Midway included the “House Upside Down,” “Cleopatra’s Temple”, and the “Foreign Villages.”&#13;
&#13;
The Pan-American Exposition is most widely known as the location of President McKinley’s assassination. On September 6, 1901, while in a receiving line at the Exposition’s Temple of Music, President McKinley was shot twice by anarchist, Leon Czolgosz. McKinley was taken to the Exposition’s hospital where he was operated on by a number of prominent Buffalo surgeons including Roswell Park. The President was then taken to the home of John Milburn, head of the Exposition’s Board of Directors, to recover.  After his condition appeared to improve, McKinley eventually died on September 14, 1901 in the Milburn home due to infection and gangrene from the gun shot wounds.&#13;
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&#13;
The Exposition included educational exhibits as well as a Midway. The educational exhibits showcased the latest advancements in technology, most notably electricity. A major feature was electric lighting which utilized hydroelectric power generated in nearby Niagara Falls. Many of the Exposition buildings, including the prominent Electric Tower, were covered in light-bulbs creating a beautiful and unprecedented sight. The Pan-American Exposition also hosted some of the top engine manufacturers of the time. These companies provided “working exhibits” that actually functioned in the day-to-day operation of the Exposition. The Midway at the Pan-American Exposition provided visitors with entertainment and consisted of more than 42 exhibits. Some of the main attractions of the Midway included the “House Upside Down,” “Cleopatra’s Temple”, and the “Foreign Villages.”&#13;
&#13;
The Pan-American Exposition is most widely known as the location of President McKinley’s assassination. On September 6, 1901, while in a receiving line at the Exposition’s Temple of Music, President McKinley was shot twice by anarchist, Leon Czolgosz. McKinley was taken to the Exposition’s hospital where he was operated on by a number of prominent Buffalo surgeons including Roswell Park. The President was then taken to the home of John Milburn, head of the Exposition’s Board of Directors, to recover.  After his condition appeared to improve, McKinley eventually died on September 14, 1901 in the Milburn home due to infection and gangrene from the gun shot wounds.&#13;
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The Pan-American Exposition is most widely known as the location of President McKinley’s assassination. On September 6, 1901, while in a receiving line at the Exposition’s Temple of Music, President McKinley was shot twice by anarchist, Leon Czolgosz. McKinley was taken to the Exposition’s hospital where he was operated on by a number of prominent Buffalo surgeons including Roswell Park. The President was then taken to the home of John Milburn, head of the Exposition’s Board of Directors, to recover.  After his condition appeared to improve, McKinley eventually died on September 14, 1901 in the Milburn home due to infection and gangrene from the gun shot wounds.&#13;
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The Exposition included educational exhibits as well as a Midway. The educational exhibits showcased the latest advancements in technology, most notably electricity. A major feature was electric lighting which utilized hydroelectric power generated in nearby Niagara Falls. Many of the Exposition buildings, including the prominent Electric Tower, were covered in light-bulbs creating a beautiful and unprecedented sight. The Pan-American Exposition also hosted some of the top engine manufacturers of the time. These companies provided “working exhibits” that actually functioned in the day-to-day operation of the Exposition. The Midway at the Pan-American Exposition provided visitors with entertainment and consisted of more than 42 exhibits. Some of the main attractions of the Midway included the “House Upside Down,” “Cleopatra’s Temple”, and the “Foreign Villages.”&#13;
&#13;
The Pan-American Exposition is most widely known as the location of President McKinley’s assassination. On September 6, 1901, while in a receiving line at the Exposition’s Temple of Music, President McKinley was shot twice by anarchist, Leon Czolgosz. McKinley was taken to the Exposition’s hospital where he was operated on by a number of prominent Buffalo surgeons including Roswell Park. The President was then taken to the home of John Milburn, head of the Exposition’s Board of Directors, to recover.  After his condition appeared to improve, McKinley eventually died on September 14, 1901 in the Milburn home due to infection and gangrene from the gun shot wounds.&#13;
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&#13;
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&#13;
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&#13;
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The Pan-American Exposition is most widely known as the location of President McKinley’s assassination. On September 6, 1901, while in a receiving line at the Exposition’s Temple of Music, President McKinley was shot twice by anarchist, Leon Czolgosz. McKinley was taken to the Exposition’s hospital where he was operated on by a number of prominent Buffalo surgeons including Roswell Park. The President was then taken to the home of John Milburn, head of the Exposition’s Board of Directors, to recover.  After his condition appeared to improve, McKinley eventually died on September 14, 1901 in the Milburn home due to infection and gangrene from the gun shot wounds.&#13;
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The Exposition included educational exhibits as well as a Midway. The educational exhibits showcased the latest advancements in technology, most notably electricity. A major feature was electric lighting which utilized hydroelectric power generated in nearby Niagara Falls. Many of the Exposition buildings, including the prominent Electric Tower, were covered in light-bulbs creating a beautiful and unprecedented sight. The Pan-American Exposition also hosted some of the top engine manufacturers of the time. These companies provided “working exhibits” that actually functioned in the day-to-day operation of the Exposition. The Midway at the Pan-American Exposition provided visitors with entertainment and consisted of more than 42 exhibits. Some of the main attractions of the Midway included the “House Upside Down,” “Cleopatra’s Temple”, and the “Foreign Villages.”&#13;
&#13;
The Pan-American Exposition is most widely known as the location of President McKinley’s assassination. On September 6, 1901, while in a receiving line at the Exposition’s Temple of Music, President McKinley was shot twice by anarchist, Leon Czolgosz. McKinley was taken to the Exposition’s hospital where he was operated on by a number of prominent Buffalo surgeons including Roswell Park. The President was then taken to the home of John Milburn, head of the Exposition’s Board of Directors, to recover.  After his condition appeared to improve, McKinley eventually died on September 14, 1901 in the Milburn home due to infection and gangrene from the gun shot wounds.&#13;
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&#13;
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The Exposition included educational exhibits as well as a Midway. The educational exhibits showcased the latest advancements in technology, most notably electricity. A major feature was electric lighting which utilized hydroelectric power generated in nearby Niagara Falls. Many of the Exposition buildings, including the prominent Electric Tower, were covered in light-bulbs creating a beautiful and unprecedented sight. The Pan-American Exposition also hosted some of the top engine manufacturers of the time. These companies provided “working exhibits” that actually functioned in the day-to-day operation of the Exposition. The Midway at the Pan-American Exposition provided visitors with entertainment and consisted of more than 42 exhibits. Some of the main attractions of the Midway included the “House Upside Down,” “Cleopatra’s Temple”, and the “Foreign Villages.”&#13;
&#13;
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The Exposition included educational exhibits as well as a Midway. The educational exhibits showcased the latest advancements in technology, most notably electricity. A major feature was electric lighting which utilized hydroelectric power generated in nearby Niagara Falls. Many of the Exposition buildings, including the prominent Electric Tower, were covered in light-bulbs creating a beautiful and unprecedented sight. The Pan-American Exposition also hosted some of the top engine manufacturers of the time. These companies provided “working exhibits” that actually functioned in the day-to-day operation of the Exposition. The Midway at the Pan-American Exposition provided visitors with entertainment and consisted of more than 42 exhibits. Some of the main attractions of the Midway included the “House Upside Down,” “Cleopatra’s Temple”, and the “Foreign Villages.”&#13;
&#13;
The Pan-American Exposition is most widely known as the location of President McKinley’s assassination. On September 6, 1901, while in a receiving line at the Exposition’s Temple of Music, President McKinley was shot twice by anarchist, Leon Czolgosz. McKinley was taken to the Exposition’s hospital where he was operated on by a number of prominent Buffalo surgeons including Roswell Park. The President was then taken to the home of John Milburn, head of the Exposition’s Board of Directors, to recover.  After his condition appeared to improve, McKinley eventually died on September 14, 1901 in the Milburn home due to infection and gangrene from the gun shot wounds.&#13;
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&#13;
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&#13;
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&#13;
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&#13;
The Pan-American Exposition is most widely known as the location of President McKinley’s assassination. On September 6, 1901, while in a receiving line at the Exposition’s Temple of Music, President McKinley was shot twice by anarchist, Leon Czolgosz. McKinley was taken to the Exposition’s hospital where he was operated on by a number of prominent Buffalo surgeons including Roswell Park. The President was then taken to the home of John Milburn, head of the Exposition’s Board of Directors, to recover.  After his condition appeared to improve, McKinley eventually died on September 14, 1901 in the Milburn home due to infection and gangrene from the gun shot wounds.&#13;
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&#13;
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&#13;
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&#13;
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&#13;
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&#13;
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The Exposition included educational exhibits as well as a Midway. The educational exhibits showcased the latest advancements in technology, most notably electricity. A major feature was electric lighting which utilized hydroelectric power generated in nearby Niagara Falls. Many of the Exposition buildings, including the prominent Electric Tower, were covered in light-bulbs creating a beautiful and unprecedented sight. The Pan-American Exposition also hosted some of the top engine manufacturers of the time. These companies provided “working exhibits” that actually functioned in the day-to-day operation of the Exposition. The Midway at the Pan-American Exposition provided visitors with entertainment and consisted of more than 42 exhibits. Some of the main attractions of the Midway included the “House Upside Down,” “Cleopatra’s Temple”, and the “Foreign Villages.”&#13;
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The Exposition included educational exhibits as well as a Midway. The educational exhibits showcased the latest advancements in technology, most notably electricity. A major feature was electric lighting which utilized hydroelectric power generated in nearby Niagara Falls. Many of the Exposition buildings, including the prominent Electric Tower, were covered in light-bulbs creating a beautiful and unprecedented sight. The Pan-American Exposition also hosted some of the top engine manufacturers of the time. These companies provided “working exhibits” that actually functioned in the day-to-day operation of the Exposition. The Midway at the Pan-American Exposition provided visitors with entertainment and consisted of more than 42 exhibits. Some of the main attractions of the Midway included the “House Upside Down,” “Cleopatra’s Temple”, and the “Foreign Villages.”&#13;
&#13;
The Pan-American Exposition is most widely known as the location of President McKinley’s assassination. On September 6, 1901, while in a receiving line at the Exposition’s Temple of Music, President McKinley was shot twice by anarchist, Leon Czolgosz. McKinley was taken to the Exposition’s hospital where he was operated on by a number of prominent Buffalo surgeons including Roswell Park. The President was then taken to the home of John Milburn, head of the Exposition’s Board of Directors, to recover.  After his condition appeared to improve, McKinley eventually died on September 14, 1901 in the Milburn home due to infection and gangrene from the gun shot wounds.&#13;
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The Exposition included educational exhibits as well as a Midway. The educational exhibits showcased the latest advancements in technology, most notably electricity. A major feature was electric lighting which utilized hydroelectric power generated in nearby Niagara Falls. Many of the Exposition buildings, including the prominent Electric Tower, were covered in light-bulbs creating a beautiful and unprecedented sight. The Pan-American Exposition also hosted some of the top engine manufacturers of the time. These companies provided “working exhibits” that actually functioned in the day-to-day operation of the Exposition. The Midway at the Pan-American Exposition provided visitors with entertainment and consisted of more than 42 exhibits. Some of the main attractions of the Midway included the “House Upside Down,” “Cleopatra’s Temple”, and the “Foreign Villages.”&#13;
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                <text>Kerry S. Grant. The Rainbow City: Celebrating Light, Color, and Architecture at the Pan-American Exposition, Buffalo, 1901. &#13;
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&#13;
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the Pan-American Exposition. Ed. David Gray. Buffalo, N.Y.:&#13;
David Gray, 1901. Sources of the images are noted with each.</text>
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The Exposition included educational exhibits as well as a Midway. The educational exhibits showcased the latest advancements in technology, most notably electricity. A major feature was electric lighting which utilized hydroelectric power generated in nearby Niagara Falls. Many of the Exposition buildings, including the prominent Electric Tower, were covered in light-bulbs creating a beautiful and unprecedented sight. The Pan-American Exposition also hosted some of the top engine manufacturers of the time. These companies provided “working exhibits” that actually functioned in the day-to-day operation of the Exposition. The Midway at the Pan-American Exposition provided visitors with entertainment and consisted of more than 42 exhibits. Some of the main attractions of the Midway included the “House Upside Down,” “Cleopatra’s Temple”, and the “Foreign Villages.”&#13;
&#13;
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The Exposition included educational exhibits as well as a Midway. The educational exhibits showcased the latest advancements in technology, most notably electricity. A major feature was electric lighting which utilized hydroelectric power generated in nearby Niagara Falls. Many of the Exposition buildings, including the prominent Electric Tower, were covered in light-bulbs creating a beautiful and unprecedented sight. The Pan-American Exposition also hosted some of the top engine manufacturers of the time. These companies provided “working exhibits” that actually functioned in the day-to-day operation of the Exposition. The Midway at the Pan-American Exposition provided visitors with entertainment and consisted of more than 42 exhibits. Some of the main attractions of the Midway included the “House Upside Down,” “Cleopatra’s Temple”, and the “Foreign Villages.”&#13;
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The Pan-American Exposition is most widely known as the location of President McKinley’s assassination. On September 6, 1901, while in a receiving line at the Exposition’s Temple of Music, President McKinley was shot twice by anarchist, Leon Czolgosz. McKinley was taken to the Exposition’s hospital where he was operated on by a number of prominent Buffalo surgeons including Roswell Park. The President was then taken to the home of John Milburn, head of the Exposition’s Board of Directors, to recover.  After his condition appeared to improve, McKinley eventually died on September 14, 1901 in the Milburn home due to infection and gangrene from the gun shot wounds.&#13;
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The Exposition included educational exhibits as well as a Midway. The educational exhibits showcased the latest advancements in technology, most notably electricity. A major feature was electric lighting which utilized hydroelectric power generated in nearby Niagara Falls. Many of the Exposition buildings, including the prominent Electric Tower, were covered in light-bulbs creating a beautiful and unprecedented sight. The Pan-American Exposition also hosted some of the top engine manufacturers of the time. These companies provided “working exhibits” that actually functioned in the day-to-day operation of the Exposition. The Midway at the Pan-American Exposition provided visitors with entertainment and consisted of more than 42 exhibits. Some of the main attractions of the Midway included the “House Upside Down,” “Cleopatra’s Temple”, and the “Foreign Villages.”&#13;
&#13;
The Pan-American Exposition is most widely known as the location of President McKinley’s assassination. On September 6, 1901, while in a receiving line at the Exposition’s Temple of Music, President McKinley was shot twice by anarchist, Leon Czolgosz. McKinley was taken to the Exposition’s hospital where he was operated on by a number of prominent Buffalo surgeons including Roswell Park. The President was then taken to the home of John Milburn, head of the Exposition’s Board of Directors, to recover.  After his condition appeared to improve, McKinley eventually died on September 14, 1901 in the Milburn home due to infection and gangrene from the gun shot wounds.&#13;
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&#13;
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&#13;
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In Thomas Leary and Elisabeth Sholes, Buffalo's Pan-American Exposition, Charleston, SC : Arcadia Publishing, 1998, p. 34.&#13;
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&#13;
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&#13;
The Exposition included educational exhibits as well as a Midway. The educational exhibits showcased the latest advancements in technology, most notably electricity. A major feature was electric lighting which utilized hydroelectric power generated in nearby Niagara Falls. Many of the Exposition buildings, including the prominent Electric Tower, were covered in light-bulbs creating a beautiful and unprecedented sight. The Pan-American Exposition also hosted some of the top engine manufacturers of the time. These companies provided “working exhibits” that actually functioned in the day-to-day operation of the Exposition. The Midway at the Pan-American Exposition provided visitors with entertainment and consisted of more than 42 exhibits. Some of the main attractions of the Midway included the “House Upside Down,” “Cleopatra’s Temple”, and the “Foreign Villages.”&#13;
&#13;
The Pan-American Exposition is most widely known as the location of President McKinley’s assassination. On September 6, 1901, while in a receiving line at the Exposition’s Temple of Music, President McKinley was shot twice by anarchist, Leon Czolgosz. McKinley was taken to the Exposition’s hospital where he was operated on by a number of prominent Buffalo surgeons including Roswell Park. The President was then taken to the home of John Milburn, head of the Exposition’s Board of Directors, to recover.  After his condition appeared to improve, McKinley eventually died on September 14, 1901 in the Milburn home due to infection and gangrene from the gun shot wounds.&#13;
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The Exposition included educational exhibits as well as a Midway. The educational exhibits showcased the latest advancements in technology, most notably electricity. A major feature was electric lighting which utilized hydroelectric power generated in nearby Niagara Falls. Many of the Exposition buildings, including the prominent Electric Tower, were covered in light-bulbs creating a beautiful and unprecedented sight. The Pan-American Exposition also hosted some of the top engine manufacturers of the time. These companies provided “working exhibits” that actually functioned in the day-to-day operation of the Exposition. The Midway at the Pan-American Exposition provided visitors with entertainment and consisted of more than 42 exhibits. Some of the main attractions of the Midway included the “House Upside Down,” “Cleopatra’s Temple”, and the “Foreign Villages.”&#13;
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&#13;
The Exposition included educational exhibits as well as a Midway. The educational exhibits showcased the latest advancements in technology, most notably electricity. A major feature was electric lighting which utilized hydroelectric power generated in nearby Niagara Falls. Many of the Exposition buildings, including the prominent Electric Tower, were covered in light-bulbs creating a beautiful and unprecedented sight. The Pan-American Exposition also hosted some of the top engine manufacturers of the time. These companies provided “working exhibits” that actually functioned in the day-to-day operation of the Exposition. The Midway at the Pan-American Exposition provided visitors with entertainment and consisted of more than 42 exhibits. Some of the main attractions of the Midway included the “House Upside Down,” “Cleopatra’s Temple”, and the “Foreign Villages.”&#13;
&#13;
The Pan-American Exposition is most widely known as the location of President McKinley’s assassination. On September 6, 1901, while in a receiving line at the Exposition’s Temple of Music, President McKinley was shot twice by anarchist, Leon Czolgosz. McKinley was taken to the Exposition’s hospital where he was operated on by a number of prominent Buffalo surgeons including Roswell Park. The President was then taken to the home of John Milburn, head of the Exposition’s Board of Directors, to recover.  After his condition appeared to improve, McKinley eventually died on September 14, 1901 in the Milburn home due to infection and gangrene from the gun shot wounds.&#13;
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                <text>Text quoted directly from the Art Hand-Book, Official Handbook of Architecture and Sculpture and Art Catalogue to the Pan-American Exposition. Ed. David Gray. Buffalo, N.Y.: David Gray, 1901. (http://bit.ly/JKxGuD)</text>
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                <text>Situated beyond the Canal at the junction of the Mall and the Midway, and fronting on the Midway, was the only large building outside the main scheme which was built by the Exposition Company. Destined for the exhibit and sale of all sorts of bijoux and souvenirs, the character of the design was studied to express a gaiety and "laisser aller" spirit consistent with the uses of the building. To express this spirit no style in the history of architecture is so well adapted as that of the French trellis-decorated buildings of the epoch of Louis XV, though it is dangerous when not used with restraint, being the expression of a generation renowned for moral decadence. When used as in this instance, where it is merely applied as surface decoration to a building composed with strong structural masses of wall surfaces in their relation to openings and great simplicity of architectural line and silhouette, it has great charm. The groups of children surmounting the balustrade, as well as the decorative bronzed figures in the niches between the windows, are the work of the sculptor Isidore Konti.</text>
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&#13;
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&#13;
The Pan-American Exposition is most widely known as the location of President McKinley’s assassination. On September 6, 1901, while in a receiving line at the Exposition’s Temple of Music, President McKinley was shot twice by anarchist, Leon Czolgosz. McKinley was taken to the Exposition’s hospital where he was operated on by a number of prominent Buffalo surgeons including Roswell Park. The President was then taken to the home of John Milburn, head of the Exposition’s Board of Directors, to recover.  After his condition appeared to improve, McKinley eventually died on September 14, 1901 in the Milburn home due to infection and gangrene from the gun shot wounds.&#13;
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                <text>Derived from a rendering by Murray Smith, published by Orvis and Smith, Buffalo, N.Y., [1901]. Original is from the collection of the Buffalo and Erie County Historical Society. In Kerry S. Grant, The Rainbow City : Celebrating Light, Color and Architecture at the Pan-American Exposition, Buffalo, 1901, Buffalo, N.Y. : Canisius College Press, 2001.</text>
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&#13;
The Exposition included educational exhibits as well as a Midway. The educational exhibits showcased the latest advancements in technology, most notably electricity. A major feature was electric lighting which utilized hydroelectric power generated in nearby Niagara Falls. Many of the Exposition buildings, including the prominent Electric Tower, were covered in light-bulbs creating a beautiful and unprecedented sight. The Pan-American Exposition also hosted some of the top engine manufacturers of the time. These companies provided “working exhibits” that actually functioned in the day-to-day operation of the Exposition. The Midway at the Pan-American Exposition provided visitors with entertainment and consisted of more than 42 exhibits. Some of the main attractions of the Midway included the “House Upside Down,” “Cleopatra’s Temple”, and the “Foreign Villages.”&#13;
&#13;
The Pan-American Exposition is most widely known as the location of President McKinley’s assassination. On September 6, 1901, while in a receiving line at the Exposition’s Temple of Music, President McKinley was shot twice by anarchist, Leon Czolgosz. McKinley was taken to the Exposition’s hospital where he was operated on by a number of prominent Buffalo surgeons including Roswell Park. The President was then taken to the home of John Milburn, head of the Exposition’s Board of Directors, to recover.  After his condition appeared to improve, McKinley eventually died on September 14, 1901 in the Milburn home due to infection and gangrene from the gun shot wounds.&#13;
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                <text>Map Showing the Main and Secondary Axes and Illustrating the Symmetry of Scale</text>
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                <text>Derived from the 1901 map, Plan of the Pan-American Exposition to be Held at Buffalo, New York, May 1 - Nov. 1, 1901, (Plan revised to April 15, 1901). Original map was drawn by C. E. Peltz and published in Buffalo, N.Y., 1901. From the collection of the University Archives, State University of New York at Buffalo.</text>
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                <text> based on information found in John M. Carrère, "The Architectural Scheme," Art Hand-Book, Official Handbook of Architecture and Sculpture and Art Catalogue to the Pan-American Exposition. Ed. David Gray. Buffalo, N.Y.: David Gray, 1901. (http://bit.ly/JKxGuD)</text>
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                  <text>The Pan-American Exposition was held in Buffalo, New York from May 1 to November 2, 1901. Buffalo was chosen as the location because of its size (at the time it was the eighth largest city in the U.S. with a population of approximately 350,000) and also because of its well suited railway connections. The grounds spread across 342 acres and were located between Delaware Park Lake to the south, the New York Central railroad track to the north, Delaware Avenue to the east, and Elmwood Avenue to the west.&#13;
&#13;
The Exposition included educational exhibits as well as a Midway. The educational exhibits showcased the latest advancements in technology, most notably electricity. A major feature was electric lighting which utilized hydroelectric power generated in nearby Niagara Falls. Many of the Exposition buildings, including the prominent Electric Tower, were covered in light-bulbs creating a beautiful and unprecedented sight. The Pan-American Exposition also hosted some of the top engine manufacturers of the time. These companies provided “working exhibits” that actually functioned in the day-to-day operation of the Exposition. The Midway at the Pan-American Exposition provided visitors with entertainment and consisted of more than 42 exhibits. Some of the main attractions of the Midway included the “House Upside Down,” “Cleopatra’s Temple”, and the “Foreign Villages.”&#13;
&#13;
The Pan-American Exposition is most widely known as the location of President McKinley’s assassination. On September 6, 1901, while in a receiving line at the Exposition’s Temple of Music, President McKinley was shot twice by anarchist, Leon Czolgosz. McKinley was taken to the Exposition’s hospital where he was operated on by a number of prominent Buffalo surgeons including Roswell Park. The President was then taken to the home of John Milburn, head of the Exposition’s Board of Directors, to recover.  After his condition appeared to improve, McKinley eventually died on September 14, 1901 in the Milburn home due to infection and gangrene from the gun shot wounds.&#13;
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                <text>Howard, John Galen, 1864-1931</text>
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                <text>The Delineator, v. 58, no. 1 (July 1901) p. 79.</text>
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                <text> Description text quoted directly from the Art Hand-Book, Official Handbook of Architecture and Sculpture and Art Catalogue to the Pan-American Exposition. Ed. David Gray. Buffalo, N.Y.: David Gray, 1901. (http://bit.ly/JKxGuD)</text>
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                <text>On Exposition Grounds</text>
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                <text> Detail views</text>
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                <text>EVERY artistic composition, whether it be a picture, a piece of sculpture, or a group of buildings, can be said to have a focus-some Point or dominant feature which serves as a resting-place for the eye. The Electric Tower, by reason of its height and its central position, is such a focus in the midst of the main group of buildings of the Pan-American Exposition. Since this may be called the Age of Electricity, it was fitting that the focal point of the Exposition should be so designed as to afford an opportunity of accentuating that fact by a lavish display of electric power. This display is in the form of a majestic fountain and a scheme of brilliant illumination. The source of the power is Niagara, and this is suggested not alone by the fountain and the basin at the base of the tower, but by various groups of statuary in the wings, which have been designed to symbolize the great bodies of water which are tributary to the stupendous cataract. The following groups occupy the niches at the extreme ends of the curved wings, and are arranged from west to east in order: Lake Michigan, by Mr. Louis A. Gudebrod</text>
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                <text> Lake Superior, by Mr. Philip Martiny</text>
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                <text> Lake St. Clair, by Mr. Henry Baerer</text>
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                <text> Lake Huron, by Mr. Philip Martiny</text>
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                <text> Lake Erie, by Mr. Carl E. Tefft. The spandrels of the niche in the south face of the tower and the smaller ones above the arch of entrance on the north side were modeled by Mr. Adolph A. Weinman, under the direction of Mr. Karl Bitter. They represent the four rivers Niagara, Buffalo, St. Lawrence, and St. Clair. The keystones of these arches were modeled by the same sculptor. Another feature of the sculptural embellishment of the tower which deserves special note is the Pan-American escutcheon on the south front of the shaft of the tower, above the water niche. This was modeled by Mr. Philip Martiny and Mr. Michele Giusti. Mr. Martiny was also the sculptor of the torch-bearers crowning the four corners of the terminal pavilions, and of the groups typifying Progress which embellish the pyramidal pylons on the east, west, and north sides of the tower. The groups ornamenting the pylons on the south side adjoining the water niche were modeled by Mr. George Gray Barnard, and typify "The Great Waters in the Time of the Indian" and "The Great Waters in the Time of the White Man." The frieze with children, garlands of fruit, and eagles, beneath the loggia at the top of the shaft, was executed by Mr. Karl Bitter. The Goddess of Light which crowns the tower is the design of Mr. Herbert Adams, and is 16 feet in height. The total height of the tower is 389 feet. The shaft of the tower is 77 ½ feet square at the base and is built with steel framework, the walls being of staff. The colonnades which form the curved wings at the sides of the tower have an extreme width of 255 feet. The promenades on these colonnades afford a fine view of the court and the other main buildings. If one approaches the tower from the north, he may cross a bridge, enter, and take an elevator to the lantern at a level of 252 feet, which commands a superb outlook of the Exposition and the surrounding country. Aside from its function as an observatory, the interior of the tower is made of service to the people by means of restaurants. As regards the architectural design of the Electric Tower, it may be called essentially American. As in the other buildings, use has here been made of classic and Renaissance forms, and certain "influences" may perhaps be pointed out by the critic</text>
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                <text> but the tower cannot be said to have been designed in any strictly defined traditional "style." It shows the trend of thought in this country, and may be taken as an example of modern American architecture.</text>
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&#13;
The Exposition included educational exhibits as well as a Midway. The educational exhibits showcased the latest advancements in technology, most notably electricity. A major feature was electric lighting which utilized hydroelectric power generated in nearby Niagara Falls. Many of the Exposition buildings, including the prominent Electric Tower, were covered in light-bulbs creating a beautiful and unprecedented sight. The Pan-American Exposition also hosted some of the top engine manufacturers of the time. These companies provided “working exhibits” that actually functioned in the day-to-day operation of the Exposition. The Midway at the Pan-American Exposition provided visitors with entertainment and consisted of more than 42 exhibits. Some of the main attractions of the Midway included the “House Upside Down,” “Cleopatra’s Temple”, and the “Foreign Villages.”&#13;
&#13;
The Pan-American Exposition is most widely known as the location of President McKinley’s assassination. On September 6, 1901, while in a receiving line at the Exposition’s Temple of Music, President McKinley was shot twice by anarchist, Leon Czolgosz. McKinley was taken to the Exposition’s hospital where he was operated on by a number of prominent Buffalo surgeons including Roswell Park. The President was then taken to the home of John Milburn, head of the Exposition’s Board of Directors, to recover.  After his condition appeared to improve, McKinley eventually died on September 14, 1901 in the Milburn home due to infection and gangrene from the gun shot wounds.&#13;
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The Exposition included educational exhibits as well as a Midway. The educational exhibits showcased the latest advancements in technology, most notably electricity. A major feature was electric lighting which utilized hydroelectric power generated in nearby Niagara Falls. Many of the Exposition buildings, including the prominent Electric Tower, were covered in light-bulbs creating a beautiful and unprecedented sight. The Pan-American Exposition also hosted some of the top engine manufacturers of the time. These companies provided “working exhibits” that actually functioned in the day-to-day operation of the Exposition. The Midway at the Pan-American Exposition provided visitors with entertainment and consisted of more than 42 exhibits. Some of the main attractions of the Midway included the “House Upside Down,” “Cleopatra’s Temple”, and the “Foreign Villages.”&#13;
&#13;
The Pan-American Exposition is most widely known as the location of President McKinley’s assassination. On September 6, 1901, while in a receiving line at the Exposition’s Temple of Music, President McKinley was shot twice by anarchist, Leon Czolgosz. McKinley was taken to the Exposition’s hospital where he was operated on by a number of prominent Buffalo surgeons including Roswell Park. The President was then taken to the home of John Milburn, head of the Exposition’s Board of Directors, to recover.  After his condition appeared to improve, McKinley eventually died on September 14, 1901 in the Milburn home due to infection and gangrene from the gun shot wounds.&#13;
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The Exposition included educational exhibits as well as a Midway. The educational exhibits showcased the latest advancements in technology, most notably electricity. A major feature was electric lighting which utilized hydroelectric power generated in nearby Niagara Falls. Many of the Exposition buildings, including the prominent Electric Tower, were covered in light-bulbs creating a beautiful and unprecedented sight. The Pan-American Exposition also hosted some of the top engine manufacturers of the time. These companies provided “working exhibits” that actually functioned in the day-to-day operation of the Exposition. The Midway at the Pan-American Exposition provided visitors with entertainment and consisted of more than 42 exhibits. Some of the main attractions of the Midway included the “House Upside Down,” “Cleopatra’s Temple”, and the “Foreign Villages.”&#13;
&#13;
The Pan-American Exposition is most widely known as the location of President McKinley’s assassination. On September 6, 1901, while in a receiving line at the Exposition’s Temple of Music, President McKinley was shot twice by anarchist, Leon Czolgosz. McKinley was taken to the Exposition’s hospital where he was operated on by a number of prominent Buffalo surgeons including Roswell Park. The President was then taken to the home of John Milburn, head of the Exposition’s Board of Directors, to recover.  After his condition appeared to improve, McKinley eventually died on September 14, 1901 in the Milburn home due to infection and gangrene from the gun shot wounds.&#13;
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&#13;
The Exposition included educational exhibits as well as a Midway. The educational exhibits showcased the latest advancements in technology, most notably electricity. A major feature was electric lighting which utilized hydroelectric power generated in nearby Niagara Falls. Many of the Exposition buildings, including the prominent Electric Tower, were covered in light-bulbs creating a beautiful and unprecedented sight. The Pan-American Exposition also hosted some of the top engine manufacturers of the time. These companies provided “working exhibits” that actually functioned in the day-to-day operation of the Exposition. The Midway at the Pan-American Exposition provided visitors with entertainment and consisted of more than 42 exhibits. Some of the main attractions of the Midway included the “House Upside Down,” “Cleopatra’s Temple”, and the “Foreign Villages.”&#13;
&#13;
The Pan-American Exposition is most widely known as the location of President McKinley’s assassination. On September 6, 1901, while in a receiving line at the Exposition’s Temple of Music, President McKinley was shot twice by anarchist, Leon Czolgosz. McKinley was taken to the Exposition’s hospital where he was operated on by a number of prominent Buffalo surgeons including Roswell Park. The President was then taken to the home of John Milburn, head of the Exposition’s Board of Directors, to recover.  After his condition appeared to improve, McKinley eventually died on September 14, 1901 in the Milburn home due to infection and gangrene from the gun shot wounds.&#13;
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                <text>Cosmopolitan, v. 31, no. 5 (September 1901) p. 472.</text>
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                <text>The Acetylene Building, situated on the Mall at the west of the Machinery Building and across the Canal, was built by the Exposition Company for the exhibits of the acetylene industry. Just opposite from the Bazaar Building, it shows an interesting contrast in architectural style. The main structural elements are equally simple and frank</text>
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                <text> ample openings for light give it the museum or exhibit-building character, while the seriousness of the nature of its exhibits is expressed by the reserve with which the ornament is applied in well-defined architectural limits, and the particular nature of the exhibits is made evident to the careful observer in the symbolism of the ornaments themselves. The evolution of lighting methods is worked out in the ornaments around the windows, from the fire-brand below up through the candle and classic lamp to the acetylene burner at the top, while above the cornice are groups of children holding acetylene torches which light the globe by M. Loester.</text>
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&#13;
The Exposition included educational exhibits as well as a Midway. The educational exhibits showcased the latest advancements in technology, most notably electricity. A major feature was electric lighting which utilized hydroelectric power generated in nearby Niagara Falls. Many of the Exposition buildings, including the prominent Electric Tower, were covered in light-bulbs creating a beautiful and unprecedented sight. The Pan-American Exposition also hosted some of the top engine manufacturers of the time. These companies provided “working exhibits” that actually functioned in the day-to-day operation of the Exposition. The Midway at the Pan-American Exposition provided visitors with entertainment and consisted of more than 42 exhibits. Some of the main attractions of the Midway included the “House Upside Down,” “Cleopatra’s Temple”, and the “Foreign Villages.”&#13;
&#13;
The Pan-American Exposition is most widely known as the location of President McKinley’s assassination. On September 6, 1901, while in a receiving line at the Exposition’s Temple of Music, President McKinley was shot twice by anarchist, Leon Czolgosz. McKinley was taken to the Exposition’s hospital where he was operated on by a number of prominent Buffalo surgeons including Roswell Park. The President was then taken to the home of John Milburn, head of the Exposition’s Board of Directors, to recover.  After his condition appeared to improve, McKinley eventually died on September 14, 1901 in the Milburn home due to infection and gangrene from the gun shot wounds.&#13;
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                <text>Text quoted directly from the Art Hand-Book, Official Handbook of Architecture and Sculpture and Art Catalogue to the Pan-American Exposition. Ed. David Gray. Buffalo, N.Y.: David Gray, 1901. (http://bit.ly/JKxGuD)</text>
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                <text>On either side or the square are buildings closely resembling one another, and having a double use. The lower part of each is largely an open arcade, forming the entrance on the one side to the Midway, and on the other to the Stadium. The remainder of these buildings serve as restaurants. The style of architecture adopted in these buildings is freely reminiscent of Spanish examples, and of their descendants in Spanish America, while no single building has been taken as a prototype. The character of the exhibition, in which only the Americas are represented, naturally suggested this inspiration, which is indeed evident in many other parts of the grounds. And it is this character which suggested calling the little square the Plaza.</text>
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&#13;
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The Exposition included educational exhibits as well as a Midway. The educational exhibits showcased the latest advancements in technology, most notably electricity. A major feature was electric lighting which utilized hydroelectric power generated in nearby Niagara Falls. Many of the Exposition buildings, including the prominent Electric Tower, were covered in light-bulbs creating a beautiful and unprecedented sight. The Pan-American Exposition also hosted some of the top engine manufacturers of the time. These companies provided “working exhibits” that actually functioned in the day-to-day operation of the Exposition. The Midway at the Pan-American Exposition provided visitors with entertainment and consisted of more than 42 exhibits. Some of the main attractions of the Midway included the “House Upside Down,” “Cleopatra’s Temple”, and the “Foreign Villages.”&#13;
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                    <text>James B. Parker Revisited
Daryl Rasuli

Souls that are not at peace often bring turmoil to the living. For the
last year, the spirit of one James B. Parker has possessed me. It

happened easy enough. One day, a friend of mine mentioned he had
read that an African American knocked the assassin of President

McKinley down to the ground after he shot the president twice at the
Pan-American Exposition in Buffalo in 1901. I was intrigued that this

fact was unknown to me and so many other people in Buffalo. So, after
a cursory review on the Internet, I found it was true.

Now, this is where the spirit part came in. It seemed that I could not
rest once I knew that James B. Parker did exist. Plus, with the

celebration of the centennial of the Pan American Exposition at hand,
there was more incentive to do the research and to bring Parker's story
to the forefront.

The search led me to a greater understanding of a period of history
that, generally, I have over looked. The time was between two great

James Benjamin Parker1

wars, the Civil War that ended in 1865 and 1914 the beginning of

World War I. A time no more than 50 years in length, but for African Americans very critical years.

During this short span of time, two of the most dynamic African American leaders Booker T. Washington and W. E.
B. DuBois each on opposite sides of the political spectrum emerged. It was not a joyful period for African

Americans between 1890 and 1910, as 2600 Black men were lynched. In 1898, Ida B. Wells led a delegation to

President William McKinley to protest lynching. In 1901, Congressman George White would be the last African
American to serve in congress until 1928. African Americans would see legal segregation come into full force.
Imagine struggling with the forces that African Americans found in this environment at the turn of the century.

These forces were all brought to bear on James Parker as he stood in line to shake President McKinley's hand. Why

did he want to in the first place? He was a waiter working at the exposition, not a spectator, slowly viewing the

exhibits and reveling in the wonders of the exposition.
There was Parker, standing in line waiting to shake the hand of the president of the United States when all hell
broke loose. The tragic event quickly unfolded, according to a Secret Service Agent's story in a Buffalo newspaper

article. He said,

�"[I was watching] this man who appeared to be an Italian, who had a short cropped heavy black moustache, he was
persistent and it was necessary for me to push him along so that the others could reach the President."
"Just as he released the President's hand, and as the President was reaching for the hand of the assassin, there were two

quick shots. Startled for a moment, I looked and saw the President draw his right hand under his coat straighten up and,
pressing his lips together, giving Leon Czolgosz the most scornful and contemptuously look possible to imagine."
"At the same time I reached for the young man and caught his left arm. The big Negro standing in back of him and

would have been next to take the presidents hand struck the assassin in the neck with one hand and with the other

reached for the revolver which had been discharged through the handkerchief and the shots had set fire to the linen."
"Immediately a dozen men fell upon the assassin and was borne on the floor. While on the floor Czolgosz again tried to

discharge the revolver but before he got to the president the Negro knocked it from his hand. As it went across the
floor, one of the artillerymen picked it up and put it in his pocket."
By all witnesses, James B. Parker was a big man. He was often described as being about 6 ft. 6 inches tall and

weighing 250 pounds. In a Buffalo Times Sept. 12 article, he is described as a plain, modest, gentlemanly person. In

1901, he was 44 years old born on July 31, 1857 in Atlanta, Georgia. Educated in Atlanta schools, he also traveled
as far north as Philadelphia, but returned south to live in Savanna. According to the Atlanta Constitution, he was
well known in Savannah and at one time was a Constable for a Negro magistrate. The article also said he had the

reputation of never returning an unserved warrant. The citizens of the East Side of Savannah also knew that he

was man of few words and a command to submit to arrest was always quietly obeyed.

He traveled to Chicago and worked as waiter in the Pullman Car organization. He returned to Atlanta in 1895 but

for the last five years lived in the north. Prior to coming to Buffalo, he was in Saratoga, New York and came to
Buffalo only days before the assassination to work at the Exposition for the Bailey Catering Company. He took that
job until a position opened as a "traveling agent" for the Gazetteer and Guide; a magazine for African Americans
published in Buffalo by James Ross. At one time he had been a newspaperman working for the Southern Recorder.

Another witness in an article written later in the Los Angeles Times by George Reasons and Sam Patrick saw the
incident a little differently:

"A gigantic negro waiter from the Plaza had been standing behind Czolgosz awaiting an opportunity in joyous

expectation to shake the president's hand. He stood there, 6 feet 4 inches tall with 250 pounds of muscular

enthusiasm, grinning happily until he heard the pistol shoot.
With one quick shift of his clenched fist, he knocked the pistol from the assassin's hand. With another, he spun the

man around like a top and with a third, he broke Czolgosz's nose. A fourth split the assassin's lip and knocked out
several teeth."
In the Sunday 8, 1901 Atlanta Constitution in article entitled "Staggering From Bullet He Was Calm" with a sub-head

reading, "Story of the Shooting Told By Eyewitness", reported the statement of the eyewitness, "I saw the flash
followed by the report and then heard the second shot. Instantly, James Parker, the colored man and Secret

Service Agent Foster were upon Czolgosz and they bore him to the floor."

�Another in the Buffalo Times September 10, 1901, report came from two Syracuse women, Mollie A. Jacquin and
Miss Elizabeth Mahley tell of the shooting this way: "The first man to take hold of Czolgosz was the Negro Parker.
He pushed his way through the crown and struck the man several times. The Negro seemed infuriated and I believe

he would have killed Czolgosz it he would not have been taken away."

Parker's own remembrance of the event as told to a reporter from the Times began:

"I heard the shots. I did what every citizen of this country should have done. I am told that I broke his nose—I wish it

had been his neck. I am sorry I did not see him four seconds before. I don's say that I would have thrown myself before
the bullets. But I do say that the life of the head of this country is worth more than that of an ordinary citizen and I
should have caught the bullets in my body rather than the President should get them. I can't tell you what I would have

done and I don't like to have it understood that I want to talk of the matter. I tried to do my duty. That's all any man can

do."

Parker said, "I went to the Temple of Music to hear what speeches might be made. I got in line and saw the President. I

turned to go away as soon as I learned that there was to be only a handshaking. The crowd was so thick that I could not
leave. I was startled by the shots. My fist shot out and I hit the man on the nose and fell upon him, grasping him about
the throat. I believe that if he had not been suffering pain he would have shot again. I know that his revolver was close

to my head. I did not think about that then though. Then came Mr. Foster, Mr. Ireland and Mr. Gallagher. There was
that marine, too. I struck the man, threw up his arm and then went for his throat. It all happened so quickly I can hardly
say what happen, except that the secret service man came right up. Czolgosz is very strong. I am glad that I am a strong

man also or perhaps the result might not have been what it was."
"I am a Negro, and am glad that the Ethiopian race has what ever credit comes with what I did. If I did anything, the
colored people should get the credit."

After the Assassination
There is no newspaper record of what Parker did immediately following the shooting. But according to a
September 10, 1901, news article, Parker appeared in the Pan American Exposition Mall, near the west gate, after
the incident. A group of people surrounded him and he was asked to sell pieces of his waistcoat and other clothing.

He recounted the story of the assassination and sold one button off his coat for $1.00.
In the time between the shooting and McKinley's death, Parker had numerous offers to work on the Midway at the

Exposition recounting his participation. One company wanted to sell his photograph, but he refused. In a quote in
the Buffalo Commercial, dated Sept. 13, 1901, Parker said, "I happened to be in a position where I could aid in the

capture of the man. I do not think that the American people would like me to make capital out of the unfortunate
circumstances. I am no freak anyway. I do not want to be exhibited in all kinds of shows. I am glad that I was able

to be of service to the country."

�Meanwhile, a Buffalo Enquirer article on September 10, recounted Detective Foster's report to the Secret Service
headquarters in Washington stating that, " A Negro hit his [Czolgosz's] arm up": thereby, missing his third shot at
the president.

News of the part Parker played in this national drama quickly spread. The Atlanta Constitution had a story in the
September 10, edition with the headline " Testimonial to Jim Parker." The article related how the Negros of
Savannah were planning to set up some type substantial testimonial for James Parker. The Constitution said that he

was well known in the city but he had not been there for several years. On September 13 in the same newspaper
an article entitled "Negros Applaud Parker" with the sub-heading "Mass Meeting in Charleston Hears Booker
Washington." On September 12, to a mass meeting of 5,000 African Americans, Booker T. Washington delivered an

address and resolution denouncing the reckless deed of the "red handed anarchist" and rejoicing that a southern

Negro "had saved the President McKinley from death."

According to the Buffalo Courier, the Buffalo Club had requested that Parker speak there and the "Order of Don't
Knock" considered admitting him to the group because of his brave actions with regard to the shooting of President

McKinley. In Syracuse a benefit was given in his honor at Grand Opera House with standing room only crowds.
President McKinley died on September 14, at approximately 8 o'clock that night. His last words were reported to
be "Good bye all; goodbye. It's God's way. His will be done." On September 15, Parker was one of the thousands of

people who paid their respects when the President's casket was displayed at the Buffalo City Hall. It was said that

he simply bowed his head and walked on.

The Trial
Prior to the trial, which began September 23, 1901, Parker was considered a major character in the assassination.
However, trial itself clouded Parker's participation in the events of September 6, 1901. Not only was Parker not
asked to testify, but those who did testify never identified Parker as the person who took the assassin down.

While he had quickly became a hero to the American people, Parker's stature unraveled just as quickly. In a
September 13, article about Parker in the Buffalo Express, Mr. James Quackenbush, an attorney, stated that he had

been standing six feet from the President. He said that he was looking to the right of President at the time the

first shot was fired and looked to Czolgosz at the sound of the second shot. Quackenbush stated that he saw Mr.
Gallagher, Mr. Ireland (both Secret Service men), Private O' Brian and the other men from the 73rd Seacoast
Artillery, lunge forward toward Czolgosz who then went down. He also stated that he saw no one else seize upon

Czoglosz except the Secret Service men and the artillerymen.

At the trail, Mr. Foster, the same Secret Service Agent who had earlier stated to have written a report that
included the participation of a Negro in the capture of Czoglosz, denied that any Negro had been part of that

capture.

�During cross-examination by Mr. Titus he was asked," Did you see this colored man?"

Foster: "What colored man?"

Titus: "Parker?"
Foster: "I noticed a colored man in the line, but it seems to me he was in front of this man."

Titus: "Instead of behind him?"
Foster: "Instead of behind him. I never saw no colored man in the whole fracas."
John Branch, an African American porter in the Temple of Music and eyewitness to the shooting according to the

record, did testify. He wasn't asked, if he saw any person of color in the event, but in the same vein, he did not
mention there
Both the Buffalo Courier and the Commercial newspapers, responded in an indirect fashion to the controversy by

stating that the evidence brought out at the trial proved that Parker had nothing to with the capture of Czolgosz.
In addition, they accused Parker lecturing and receiving money for the "Parker Fund" under false pretenses.

The African American community was outraged because of Parker not testifying at the trial. It appeared to many
that the Secret Service and the military were embarrassed that this man essentially brought the assassin down

instead of them. Parker was asked to comment about not testifying. He said, " I don't say it was done with any

intent to defraud, but it looks mighty funny, that's all."
The African American community held a ceremony to honor James Parker for his part in capturing Czolgosz and to

inquire as to why Parker was not recognized as a participant in the assassin's arrest. The gathering was held at the
Vine Street African Methodist Church on September 27, 1901. The church was packed and the general feeling,
according to the Buffalo News, was that the audience was incensed that no credit or recognition was given to

Parker.
The meeting was called to order by the Reverend E. A. Johnson, pastor of the church. Former pastor Reverend J.
C. Aylmer led a hymn and gave a prayer. The discussion that followed resulted in the formation of a committee to

inquire into the merits of Parker's case. The committee members were Rev. J. E. Nash, pastor of Michigan Baptist

Church, Rev. J. C. Ayler, M. H. Lucas, W. Q. H. Aikens and J. W. Peterson.
While the committee went into private discussion, Parker's fellow named Shaw delivered a short testimonial on
Parker. He said, "When I first entered this hall, it was my intention to go quietly way back and sit down….

Yesterday…. I … feel the inspiration of defense arise within me. The evident attempt to discredit Parker is a sign of

conspiracy and should we fail to emphatically resent it, I claim we are a disgrace to our race. " When Jim Parker
entered the hall, he refused all demands to make a speech and sat down amidst cheers.

The committee entered and read their position on the matter. "Whereas, there is a conflict of statements between
the Associated Press and the Supreme Court of New York with respect or disrespect to the heroic act of James

Parker in having thwarted the purpose of Leon Czolgosz in inflicting immediate death of our William McKinley.
Whereas, we, the colored citizens of the City of Buffalo, N.Y. in this mass meeting assembled, that they very much
regret the clash of statement in respect to the reported act of heroism on the part of James Parker, in that the
Associated Press as a molder of public sentiment and as a herald of accepted facts…. Reported said heroic act both

�in America and Europe, and that the Supreme Court, the arbiter of justice …. Entirely eliminated said James B.

Parker from the part he is reported by the press to have played in this tragedy."

Information about James Parker's life after the trial has not been forthcoming. My goal in this endeavor was to
somehow connect Parker to the present. I was hoping to find the lead that would allow me to trace his family to
the present. Perhaps, I can still accomplish this if his story makes people more aware of his importance or non

importance in American history. Despite this search, the "truth" is still not clear.
In conclusion, this little history of the stereotypical "invisible man" has reinforced my opinion that the "victorious"

write history. While it is important for Black and White Americans to know that an African American had played

such a brief but pivotal role in history of this country, that importance may be attributed to different reasons. For
African Americans, Parker's story illustrates that African Americans were active participants in the events of

United States history, despite America's reluctance to declare that fact. For white America, Parker's actions and
the subsequent erasure or exposure of his deeds or misdeeds show how truth can be manipulated.

The spirit of James B. Parker still visits me because my job is only partly finished. Hopefully, the future will reveal

more about this man and the actions of September 6, 1901 and beyond. Then perhaps, his spirit can rest.

Note
1. This photograph of James Parker appeared in the Buffalo Times, September 15, 1901, with the following

caption: "James Benjamin Parker, The Negro Who Struck Down Leon Czolgosz, the Assassin of President McKinley,
and Thus Became Famous in a Single Day." W. Cotter, photographer.

© 2001 Daryl Rasuli

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The Exposition included educational exhibits as well as a Midway. The educational exhibits showcased the latest advancements in technology, most notably electricity. A major feature was electric lighting which utilized hydroelectric power generated in nearby Niagara Falls. Many of the Exposition buildings, including the prominent Electric Tower, were covered in light-bulbs creating a beautiful and unprecedented sight. The Pan-American Exposition also hosted some of the top engine manufacturers of the time. These companies provided “working exhibits” that actually functioned in the day-to-day operation of the Exposition. The Midway at the Pan-American Exposition provided visitors with entertainment and consisted of more than 42 exhibits. Some of the main attractions of the Midway included the “House Upside Down,” “Cleopatra’s Temple”, and the “Foreign Villages.”&#13;
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The Pan-American Exposition is most widely known as the location of President McKinley’s assassination. On September 6, 1901, while in a receiving line at the Exposition’s Temple of Music, President McKinley was shot twice by anarchist, Leon Czolgosz. McKinley was taken to the Exposition’s hospital where he was operated on by a number of prominent Buffalo surgeons including Roswell Park. The President was then taken to the home of John Milburn, head of the Exposition’s Board of Directors, to recover.  After his condition appeared to improve, McKinley eventually died on September 14, 1901 in the Milburn home due to infection and gangrene from the gun shot wounds.&#13;
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                    <text>Introduction: Niagara Falls and Electricity
Jack Foran

Ironies abound. The theme image of the Pan-American Exposition was light-specifically, electrical light--referring to Buffalo's proximity to Niagara Falls, and

consequent potential to exploit the almost limitless electrical energy of the Falls.
The first-time-ever large-scale development of this new energy type had occurred at
the Falls five years prior to the Pan-Am.

But the development of electricity at Niagara Falls was about electricity for
industrial power, not light. Electricity for light was already in wide-scale use at the

time. The Edison Company had the corner on market. Edison supplied most of the
electrical lighting in use at the time, and held the key patents that applied to
electrical lighting production and manufactures.
To justify the huge and extremely costly project of harnessing the natural wonder of

Niagara Falls for electricity required, first of all, identifying a market for the vast
amount of electrical power that would be produced. The market was to be Buffalo
industry. But then there needed to be a method to transmit the power from the Falls
to Buffalo, a distance of 25 miles. This required development of alternating current

The Electric Tower
Illuminated. Photo credit: n/a.
Source: Kerry S. Grant. The
Rainbow City: Celebrating
Light Color and Architecture at
the Pan-American Exposition,
Buffalo 1901. Buffalo, N.Y.:
Canisius College Press. From
the collection of the Buffallo
History Museum

(AC). It was impossible to transmit direct current (DC), the form of electricity then

mostly in use, more than about a mile. Edison's lighting industry used DC, which was supplied from numerous
"central stations," each serving about a one-square mile area.
The development of the AC system was the work of the genius Nicola Tesla,

working for George Westinghouse, Edison's great rival in the electrical industry.

Tesla had previously worked for Edison, who found him an extremely useful hire. In
New York City, he bailed Edison out of one engineering difficulty after another. But
Edison had no interest in Tesla's life-long real interest--AC--and provided little
encouragement or incentive for Tesla to work on this pet project. (Nor, for that
matter, did the Wizard of Menlo Park see much potential for the use of electricity

for industrial power. Power for industry was and would always be adequately

supplied, Edison must have thought, by the still fairly new technology of the steam
engine.)

Portrait of Nicola Tesla. Photo
Credit: undetermined. Source:
T. Commerford Martin and
Stephen Leidy Coles, eds. The
Story of Electricity. New York:
The Story of Electricity
Company, 1919?

Tesla didn't invent AC electricity or the transformer--the theoretically simple

device that could boost the voltage of AC, making it economical for transmission
(by Ohm's law, E = IR, according to which raising the voltage, E, reduces, relatively,

amperage, I, and resistance, R, which is where losses occur). Tesla's great

�contribution was the development of the AC motor, completing the loop, making AC electricity a feasible
industrial commodity.

The final irony was on the order of the "build it and they will come" thesis of the baseball movie. They harnessed
the falls and immediately major industries--most notably the fledgling Pittsburgh Reduction Company, which later

became Aluminum Company of America, then a number of chemical companies--moved to Niagara Falls to buy and
use the power. It wasn't for several years, after expansion of the original generating capacity, that they began
selling substantial amounts of electricity to the Buffalo market.

Chemical companies and other industries occupying the lands of the Niagara Falls Power Company. This map shows the area
upriver of the actual falls.

© 2001 Text - Jack Foran (Note: Images and captions added by web site editor--ed.)
Jack Foran is a freelance writer and editor in Buffalo. He was formerly a technical writer and editor for several
area environmental consultant firms, and a reporter with several newspapers. He is currently working on a book on

Western New York decisive historical moments.

For more information on the development of electrical power systems at Niagara Falls, please link to Jack Foran's
"The Day They Turned The Falls On : The Invention Of The Universal Electrical Power Systems"

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&#13;
The Exposition included educational exhibits as well as a Midway. The educational exhibits showcased the latest advancements in technology, most notably electricity. A major feature was electric lighting which utilized hydroelectric power generated in nearby Niagara Falls. Many of the Exposition buildings, including the prominent Electric Tower, were covered in light-bulbs creating a beautiful and unprecedented sight. The Pan-American Exposition also hosted some of the top engine manufacturers of the time. These companies provided “working exhibits” that actually functioned in the day-to-day operation of the Exposition. The Midway at the Pan-American Exposition provided visitors with entertainment and consisted of more than 42 exhibits. Some of the main attractions of the Midway included the “House Upside Down,” “Cleopatra’s Temple”, and the “Foreign Villages.”&#13;
&#13;
The Pan-American Exposition is most widely known as the location of President McKinley’s assassination. On September 6, 1901, while in a receiving line at the Exposition’s Temple of Music, President McKinley was shot twice by anarchist, Leon Czolgosz. McKinley was taken to the Exposition’s hospital where he was operated on by a number of prominent Buffalo surgeons including Roswell Park. The President was then taken to the home of John Milburn, head of the Exposition’s Board of Directors, to recover.  After his condition appeared to improve, McKinley eventually died on September 14, 1901 in the Milburn home due to infection and gangrene from the gun shot wounds.&#13;
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                    <text>C. D. Arnold, Photographer of the Pan-American

Exposition
John M. Bewley

Residents of a later age, we have in Arnold's pictures the means to reconstruct the
dreams of a previous era, one that is both alien and familiar to us.

1

Charles Dudley Arnold was 56 years of age when he was selected to be
the official photographer for the Pan-American Exposition in Buffalo.
By that time in his career Arnold had accumulated more than 20 years

as a professional photographer specializing in images of architecture.
He had published two books of architectural photographs and won the

favorable attention and praise of architects who were coming to rely
upon such work for their studies. Arnold also served as the official
photographer for the World's Columbian Exposition in Chicago in 1893,

documenting the project from the initiation of its construction in 1891.

The first exposure many people have to the sights of both the

Columbian and Pan-American Expositions comes through the images of
C. D. Arnold.

Arnold was born in Port Stanley, Ontario March 19, 1844 and moved to
Buffalo, New York by the time he was twenty. He was first introduced

to photography while working as a traveling salesman when a colleague

Charles D. Arnold. "Official Photographer of
the Pan-American Exposition". Photo credit:
Gilbert, New York. Source: The [Buffalo]
Illustrated Express, August 1899.

demonstrated a new camera to him. By the 1880s Arnold had taken up
photography professionally and had already chosen to specialize in architectural photography. He left for Europe

where he traveled the countrysides of England and France with a dog and a cart, taking photographs of local
structures. These images provided a unique source of study for architects in Europe and the United States. Arnold

returned to Buffalo after his work abroad. He maintained a residence in the city until his death in 1927.
C. D. Arnold's first book of photographs, Studies in Architecture at Home and Abroad, was published in New York in
1888. His work was well received. During the years 1885-1891 Arnold worked in New York City where he was listed

as a photographer in city directories. The success of his work resulted in a contract to become the official

�photographer for the Columbian Exposition in Chicago. He relocated to Chicago in 1891 and began work

documenting the construction of the Exposition that same year.

Examples of this phase of Arnold's work can be seen in Peter B. Hales' insightful book, Constructing the Fair: Platinum

Photographs by C. D. Arnold of the World's Columbian Exposition (Chicago, Ill.: Art Institute of Chicago, 1993.) Hales

points out the significance that Arnold's images had, not only for documenting the Exposition's beginnings, but
also, through the extraordinarily wide distribution of Arnold's images in many formats, in successfully propagating
the ideals embodied by the Exposition. Acting as a documentary photographer, Arnold hid most traces of his own

artistic persona from the images he shot. His documentary images become historical artifacts rather than a
photographer's personal, artistic statement. Peter B. Hales writes of this aspect of Arnold's work, saying:

In reproduced form ... Arnold's name seemed less important than the fact that the pictures were official

presentations of the official elite. In fact, the more successful the pictures were, the more they seemed
to exist on their own, witnesses to grandeur, sublimity, and civility, rather than active creations of it.

Their very success lay in Arnold's ability to make them seem mute, even transparent windows onto the

real objects of culture: buildings, spaces, landscapes, utopias.

2

Due to conflict with the board of the Columbian Exposition, Arnold was
replaced as official photographer before the concluding images of the

Exposition were shot. William Henry Jackson, a successful landscape
photographer, was hired to make the final photographs that would
constitute the official visual history of the Exposition. Even without

these final photographs, Daniel H. Burnham, Director of Works of the
Exposition, reported that Arnold and his crew of assistants had made
approximately 15,000 negatives of the Exposition
C. D. Arnold continued his work as architectural photographer through
the remainder of the 1890s, producing another book of photographs in

1896, Country Architecture in France and England XV. And XVI.
Centuries (from negatives by C. D. Arnold, H. D. Higinbotham and E. A.
Stewardson. Buffalo, N.Y.: C. D. Arnold, 1896). Many of the images of

French sites were later reproduced in 1924 in French Farm Houses, Small
Chateaux and Country Churches in France (by Antonio Di Nardo, with a

preface by Paul P. Crét, photographs by C. D. Arnold and A. Di Nardo.
Cleveland, Ohio: J. H. Jansen, 1924).
The examples from this period demonstrate the quality of Arnold's work

"The Chancel, Lockington Church,
Leicestershire". Source: Country Architecture
in France and England XV. And XVI.
Centuries (from negatives by C. D. Arnold, H.
D. Higinbotham and E. A. Stewardson.
Buffalo, N.Y.: C. D. Arnold, 1896). Photo
credit: C.D.

and the nature of his architectural photographs outside the realm of
exposition documentation. They can still be said to be documentary in nature, but they also clearly impart more of

Arnold's artistic personality than the Exposition photographs. This is especially notable in his use of local people in
many of the images.

�Much of what Peter B. Hales writes about Arnold's work and its
role in spreading the message of the Columbian Exposition

applies equally well to Arnold's work in Buffalo. Arnold's work

at the Pan-American Exposition, as it did at the Columbian

Exposition, included having a concessionaire's license. He had
a studio on the Exposition grounds from which he sold souvenir

copies of his images.

C. D. Arnold's studio at the Pan-American Exposition

The range of Arnold's work is impressive. He shot everything from the

beginning to the end of the Exposition, including preparation of the
grounds, construction, sculpture studios as work was being prepared,
finished sculpture before and after it was installed, and interiors and

exteriors of finished buildings. Of course, one of the most important
elements of the Pan-American Exposition was its use of lighting to

illuminate the grounds at night. These images must have presented Arnold
with several technological challenges, but they are stunning for their

clarity.

Several of the images Arnold shot of the Pan-American Exposition have
become icons: the Electric Tower, the Temple of Music, the Ethnology

Building. But there are other, less well-known shots, that are equally

impressive and show slightly different sides of Arnold's talent.

"The Electric Tower". Photo credit: C.D.
Arnold. Source: C. D. Arnold. The Pan­
American Exposition Illustrated. Buffalo,
N.Y.: C. D. Arnold, 1901. p.3.

�Portraits are rare among the most commonly distributed images of
Arnold's work, but he chose to include his portrait of Chief Little Wound
in his collection, The Pan-American Exposition Illustrated. It is a striking and

serious portrait that grants a level of respect to a Native American not
necessarily demonstrated elsewhere in the Exposition.

A colonnade connecting the Machinery Building and the Temple of Music and a scene in the garden of Fair Japan

provided Arnold more opportunities to display his talent for composition.

Garden Scene in "Fair Japan". Photo
credit: C.D. Arnold. Source: C. D. Arnold.
The Pan-American Exposition Illustrated.
Buffalo, N.Y.: C. D. Arnold, 1901. p.102.

Colonnade. Connecting the Machinery Building and the Temple of Music.
Photo credit: C.D. Arnold. Source: C. D. Arnold. The Pan-American
Exposition Illustrated. Buffalo, N.Y.: C. D. Arnold, 1901. p.31.

�Many of Arnold's photographs of the Exposition contain such a high degree of detail that it is only possible to see
all of it once the image has been enlarged. Scanning the images enables us to reveal much of this detail,
sometimes with unexpected results. The following images demonstrate the rewards gained from examining

enlargements of the images. Each image contains details that have been linked to a related enlargement; click on

these "hot spots" (found by passing the cursor over the image until the cursor becomes a hand) to see the
enlargements.

Interior of the Horticulture Building. Photo credit: C.D. Arnold. Source: C. D. Arnold. The Pan-American Exposition Illustrated.
Buffalo, N.Y.: C. D. Arnold, 1901. p.5.

Arnold's photograph of the interior of the Horticulture Building contains many details easily missed by the casual
observer: the "Hands Off" sign on the fruit stand to the right, the security guard to the rear of the image, and the

sculpture that is suspended high among the ferns are three that are notable.

�Interior of the Electricity
Building. Photo credit: C.D.
Arnold. Source: C. D. Arnold.
The Pan-American Exposition
Illustrated. Buffalo, N.Y.: C. D.
Arnold, 1901. p.39.

The photograph of the interior of the Electricity Building also contains interesting details: the displays themselves,
the man seated at the controls to the left, the signs of the exhibits, like that for a "Chloride Accumulator", and the

"ghost" figures that appear due to the amount of time the lens had to be open to capture the image in the interior
lighting.

Construction of the
Midway Entrances.
Photo credit: C.D.
Arnold. Source:
Thomas E. Leary and
Elizabeth C. Sholes.
Buffalo's Pan­
American Exposition.
Charleston, SC :
Arcadia Publishing,
1998. p.23. Image
from the collection of
the Buffalo and Erie
Country Historical
Society.

A third example can be seen in the photograph Arnold took during the construction of the Midway entrances. It is
possible to see how the staff sheathing was being applied to the columns. More memorable is the figure at the left

of the group of workers. Unless mistaken, he is thumbing his nose at the camera.

�The entire contents of C. D. Arnold's book, The Pan-American Exposition
Illustrated (Buffalo, N.Y.: C. D. Arnold, 1901) have been digitized and are

available for online viewing. The individual images vary in size, but most
have a file size around 150K.

References:
•

1. Hales, Peter B. Constructing the Fair: Platinum Photographs by C. D. Arnold of the World's Columbian

Exposition. Chicago, Ill.: Art Institute of Chicago, 1993. p. 48.

•

2. Ibid., p. 40.

A chronology and more details about the life of C. D. Arnold are available at the Web site, Charles Dudley Arnold,

Photographer, 1844-1927: Official Photographer Chicago Columbian Exposition, Pan-American Expositon

© 2001 John M. Bewley

John M. Bewley is a music librarian and the music archivist at the University at Buffalo, The State Univeristy of
New York. He is also the curator of the Music and Musicians at the Pan-American Exposition section of this online
exhibit.

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&#13;
The Exposition included educational exhibits as well as a Midway. The educational exhibits showcased the latest advancements in technology, most notably electricity. A major feature was electric lighting which utilized hydroelectric power generated in nearby Niagara Falls. Many of the Exposition buildings, including the prominent Electric Tower, were covered in light-bulbs creating a beautiful and unprecedented sight. The Pan-American Exposition also hosted some of the top engine manufacturers of the time. These companies provided “working exhibits” that actually functioned in the day-to-day operation of the Exposition. The Midway at the Pan-American Exposition provided visitors with entertainment and consisted of more than 42 exhibits. Some of the main attractions of the Midway included the “House Upside Down,” “Cleopatra’s Temple”, and the “Foreign Villages.”&#13;
&#13;
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                    <text>Buffalo Architecture at the Time of the
Pan-American Exposition
Jack Quinan
The genius of Buffalo's architecture began with the plan that Joseph Ellicott created in 1804 [Fig. 1] for the Holland

Land Company, a radial configuration that began at Niagara Square and fanned out eastward in a perfect metaphor

for the city's eventual identity as a center for the trans-shipment and processing of goods-especially grain, lumber,

beef, and ore- from the western United States to eastern markets.

Aided by the completion of the Erie Canal in 1825 and subsequently by
dense railroad lines, Buffalo quickly grew from a village into a city of

nearly 400,000 inhabitants. As new businesses swelled the population,
industry expanded south and eastward, often following waterways like
the Buffalo and Niagara rivers, while neighborhoods moved largely

northward. In 1868 William Dorsheimer, a Buffalo-based Lieutenant

Governor of New York, persuaded community leaders to bring

Frederick Law Olmsted to create a park system for the city. Broadly
conceived, Olmsted's parks [Fig. 2] describe an arc that perfectly

accommodated the new radial trolley systems and the Belt-Line
railroad that would bring the population to and beyond the outer

edges of the city. This was the framework into which the architecture

of Buffalo would be accommodated.

What was Buffalo like in the years immediately preceding the Pan
American Exposition? Vintage photographs [Fig. 3] remind us that
downtown was dense and bustling, the center of everything in the

Fig. 1. "Ellicott's Plan for Buffalo, 1804"
Source: Francis Kowsky. The Best Planned City
The Olmsted Legacy in Buffalo. Buffalo, N.Y.,
1992, Fig. 2.

days before the automobile. Among the hundreds of buildings
comprising Buffalo's downtown circa 1900, those forming Shelton Square [Fig. 4a, Shelton Square] were especially

distinguished. St. Paul's Episcopal Cathedral (1849-51, 1870-71) by Richard Upjohn, Americas's prominent Gothic
Revivalist, stands immediately across Pearl Street from Louis Sullivan's Guaranty Building (1895-1896) [Fig. 4b] a

masterpiece of Chicago School rationalism, while George Post's Erie Savings Bank (1893-5), a clever variation on H.

H. Richardson's Romanesque, occupied the site subsequently given over to the unfortunate Main Place Mall and
tower. With the demolition of Post's bank an outstanding Nineteenth century enclave was lost. Less than 200 feet

�east of St. Paul's, just across Main Street, stands Daniel Burnham's
Ellicott Square Building (1895-6) [Fig. 5], then famous as the world's
largest office building and still noteworthy for its interior light court

and busy Mannerist surfaces. Three blocks north on Main street
stood Leopold Eidlitz's Buffalo Public Library [Fig. 6] whose angular

medieval design defeated a competing design by the renowned H.

H. Richardson. That all of these architects were from Boston, New
York, and Chicago is a testament to the vision of Buffalo's

Nineteenth century patrons.

Fig. 2. "Frederick Law Olmsted's Park System
for Buffalo" Image Source: Francis Kowsky.
The Best Planned City The Olmsted Legacy in
Buffalo, (Buffalo, N.Y., 1992, Fig.7.

Fig. 4. Shelton Square: (above left to right) St. Paul's Episcopal Cathedral, Sullivan's Guaranty Building and Post's Erie Savings
Bank. Louis Sullivan's Guaranty Building (right).

�"Daniel Burnham, Ellicott Square Building, 1895-6" Image source: Views of Buffalo [no pagination]

Fig. 6. "Leopold Eidlitz, Buffalo Public Library" Image source: Quinan post card, "Buffalo Public Library, Buffalo, N.Y."

�Fig. 8. Green &amp; Wicks, Buffalo (Erie) Savings Bank

Figure 15. Albright Art Museum, designed by E. B. Green.

�Downtown Buffalo was ultimately

the creation of scores of architects

but among them, Edward B. Green
and his partner, William Wicks,

dominated local practice for more

than fifty years and had a decisive
impact upon the character of the

city. At the time of the Pan
American Exposition they had

completed the Merchant's
Exchange (c1887), the Granger

Block (c1887), the D. S. Morgan
Building (1894), the O'Day and
Rockefeller Building (1890), the
Hollister and Evans Block (1890­

91), the J. N. Adams Dry Goods
Store (1891), the Dun Building
(1894-5) [Fig. 7], the Market Arcade
(1892), the Bank of C Commerce

(1894-5), the Buffalo Real Estate
Exchange Building (1895-6) and the
Buffalo Savings Bank (1900-1) [Fig.

8]. Most of these were sturdy,

confident Classical buildings often
rendered in warm Roman brick

with richly articulated terra cotta
details, though Green was equally

adept in Gothic, Tudor, and
eventually Art Deco design modes.

Fig. 7. (left) Dun Building, one of several buildings by Wicks &amp; Green.

�The industrial Buffalo extolled by Reyner Banham in A Concrete

Atlantis (Cambridge, Mass., 1986) is a city of monolithic concrete
grain elevators and reinforced concrete-framed "daylight factories"
that post-date the Pan American Exposition. In contrast to the

smooth curves of the concrete grain silos of the Twentieth century,

their predecessors [Fig. 9] were dark, angular and ungainly in
proportion, and somewhat frail owing to their metal frames and

highmaintenance

brick
construction.
The lone

survivor of the

Fig. 10. "Max Toltz with D. A. Robinson, Pillsbury
or Great Northern Grain Elevator, 1898" Source:
Quinan post card

type is the
Pillsbury or
"Great Northern"

elevator [Fig. 10] of 1898. In the days before reinforced
concrete industrial construction in Buffalo was dominated by
the R. J. Reidpath company, architectural engineers whose

Fig. 9. Nineteenth Century grain elevators in Buffalo

segmentally arched windows, bull-nosed brick detailing, economical wall construction and overall fine sense of

proportion is still visible in the Larkin industrial buildings on Seneca Street. Sadly, the artifacts of Industrial
Buffalo are disappearing at an astonishing rate and must be ferreted out in isolated pockets such as Chandler
Street where the Buffalo Weaving and Belting Company still operates.

Residential Buffalo developed in a series of rings determined by the

advances in transportation systems across the Nineteenth century.
Joseph Ellicott's city was modest in size and was negotiated on foot,
horseback, or horse-drawn carriage. By mid-century, however, horse

drawn trolleys expanded the perimeter of the city by about two miles

and promoted the
development of the
neighborhoods north

and east of

"H. H. Richardson, William Dorsheimer House,
1869-71" Source: Quinan slide

Allentown and in

South Buffalo. In the
1880s the

development of the Belt-Line Railroad and the electrification of

trolleys in the 1890s spurred new suburban neighborhoods four
and five miles from the city center. Throughout the century

Delaware Avenue, one of Ellicott's original streets, remained a

Fig. 12. "McKim, Mead &amp; White, Pratt Mansion,
1895-6" Source: Quinan slide

�street of imposing mansions, some designed by such distinguished practitioners as Boston-based H. H. Richardson
(the Dorsheimer [Fig. 11] and Gratwick houses), New York City's McKim, Mead and White (the Butler, Pratt [Fig. 12],
Root and Metcalfe houses), and Joseph Lyman Silsbee of Chicago (the J.M. Bemis House [Fig. 13] and numerous

other houses on Linwood and Delaware Avenues) while most fell to such distinguished local architects as Green and

Wicks, Edward Kent, George Cary, C.W. Swan, and C.R. Percival.

Richardson's William H. Gratwick Mansion,
demolished in 1919, was a stunning essay in
monumental stonework wherein medieval forms
are disciplined by functional considerations.
McKim, Mead and White's work is representative of

their embrace of Beaux-Arts Classicism tempered
by a loyalty to the American Colonial style. Silsbee
was a passionate devotee of the Queen Anne
revival in which complex but sensibly organized

forms were arrayed in a rich surface of cut

shingles, carved accents, and decorative glazing.
Frank Lloyd Wright said of Silsbee, his first
employer, that "he drew like a dream."

"Jospeh Lyman Silsbee, J. M. Bemis Mansion, 1883" Image source:
Quinan slide

Buffalo has a wealth of Victorian domestic architecture but the greatest

portion of the fabric of the city consists of a standard plan two story,

two-family wood frame and gable roofed structure [Fig. 14] inserted into
the new, trolley-serviced neighborhoods, especially north of the

downtown area, by developers. The Parkside neighborhood is hardly
typical as it was designed by Olmsted with curving streets to wrap the

northeast segment of Delaware Park, but while Jewett Avenue was
treated as a gateway from Main street to the Park and features many

substantial houses, the lesser streets, such as Russell, are populated

with the standard developers' housing.

Fig. 14. Standard plan, 2 family wood
frame home

�The Pan American Exposition stimulated the
development of the Olmsted boulevards that

led from E. B. Green's First Presbyterian Church
at Symphony Circle along Richmond Avenue to

Bidwell and Lincoln Parkways and into the park
itself. Here a second wave of ealthy patrons
built pretentious homes to the designs of local

architects, a sign, perhaps, that fortunes were
leveling and visions were dimming.
Nevertheless, as George Cary and E. B. Green

designed the New York State Building (now the
Buffalo and Erie County Historical Society) and

Fig. 16. "Richardson, Buffalo State Hospital, 1870-96" Image source:
Quinan slide

the Albright Art Museum [Fig. 15], respectively,

in concert with the Fair, the city's cultural

institutions were clearly leaving the old downtown and moving to the Olmsted-defined fringe, a region in which
the far-sighted William Dorsheimer had assisted H. H. Richardson in obtaining the commission for the State Mental

Hospital 16b], with landscape by Olmsted, in 1870.
Ellicott's Buffalo, Industrial Buffalo, Victorian Buffalo, Classical Buffalo, Olmsted's Buffalo, ethnic Buffalo,

Downtown Buffalo; the city is the usual synthesis of the ideas and visions and creativity of many minds over time,
but its uniqueness lies in the quality of the work up to 1900 and its exceptional rate of survival.

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
•

Fig. 1. Ellicott's Plan for Buffalo, 1804 (image from Francis Kowsky The Best Planned City The Olmsted Legacy in

Buffalo, (Buffalo, N.Y., 1992, Fig. 2)

•

Fig. 2. Frederick Law Olmsted's Park System for Buffalo (Kowsky, Fig. 7.)

•

Fig. 3. Vintage Photograph of Downtown in the 1890s (source?)

•

Fig. 4a. Shelton Square (Richard Upjohn, St. Paul's Episcopal Cathedral, 1849-51; Louis Sullivan, Prudential
(Guaranty) Building, 1895-6; George Post, Erie County Savings Bank, c1890 (from Prudential and Erie Savings Bank

in Post Card views)

•

Fig. 4b. Louis Sullivan, Prudential (Guaranty) Building, 1895-6 (from Prudential post card view)

•

Fig. 5. Daniel Burnham, Ellicott Square Building, 1895-6 (from Views of Buffalo)

•

Fig. 6. Leopold Eidlitz, Buffalo Public Library (from Quinan post card)

•

Fig. 7. E. B. Green and William Wicks, Dun Building, 1894-5 (Quinan slide)

•

Fig. 8. Green &amp; Wicks, Buffalo Savings Bank, 1900-1 (Quinan slide)

•

Fig. 9. Nineteenth Century Grain elevators in Buffalo (Photo courtesy of the Buffalo and Erie County Historical
Society)

�•

Fig. 10. Max Toltz with D. A. Robinson, Pillsbury or Great Northern Grain Elevator, 1898 (J. Q. Post Card)

•

Fig. 11. H. H. Richardson, William Dorsheimer House, 1869-71 (Quinan slide)

•

Fig. 12. McKim, Mead &amp; White, Pratt Mansion, 1895-6 (Quinan slide)

•

Fig. 13. Jospeh Lyman Silsbee, J. M. Bemis Mansion, 1883 (Quinan slide)

•

Fig. 14. Common two-family wood frame house (Quinan slide)

•

Fig. 15. Green &amp; Wicks, Albright Art Gallery, 1900-5 (Quinan slide)

•

Fig. 16, Richardson, Buffalo State Hospital, 1870-96 (Quinan slide)

© 2001 - Jack Quinan
Jack Quinan, Ph.D., is Curator of the Frank Lloyd Wright designed Darwin D. Martin House on Jewett Parkway in Buffalo

and is adjunct professor of architecture at the Frank Lloyd Wright School of Architecture, Taliesin West, Scottsdale,

Arizona. His 1987 book, Frank Lloyd Wright's Larkin Building: Myth and Fact, (Cambridge, Mass.: AHF/MIT Press,) is
considered by Wright scholars to be a classic.

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                  <text>The Pan-American Exposition was held in Buffalo, New York from May 1 to November 2, 1901. Buffalo was chosen as the location because of its size (at the time it was the eighth largest city in the U.S. with a population of approximately 350,000) and also because of its well suited railway connections. The grounds spread across 342 acres and were located between Delaware Park Lake to the south, the New York Central railroad track to the north, Delaware Avenue to the east, and Elmwood Avenue to the west.&#13;
&#13;
The Exposition included educational exhibits as well as a Midway. The educational exhibits showcased the latest advancements in technology, most notably electricity. A major feature was electric lighting which utilized hydroelectric power generated in nearby Niagara Falls. Many of the Exposition buildings, including the prominent Electric Tower, were covered in light-bulbs creating a beautiful and unprecedented sight. The Pan-American Exposition also hosted some of the top engine manufacturers of the time. These companies provided “working exhibits” that actually functioned in the day-to-day operation of the Exposition. The Midway at the Pan-American Exposition provided visitors with entertainment and consisted of more than 42 exhibits. Some of the main attractions of the Midway included the “House Upside Down,” “Cleopatra’s Temple”, and the “Foreign Villages.”&#13;
&#13;
The Pan-American Exposition is most widely known as the location of President McKinley’s assassination. On September 6, 1901, while in a receiving line at the Exposition’s Temple of Music, President McKinley was shot twice by anarchist, Leon Czolgosz. McKinley was taken to the Exposition’s hospital where he was operated on by a number of prominent Buffalo surgeons including Roswell Park. The President was then taken to the home of John Milburn, head of the Exposition’s Board of Directors, to recover.  After his condition appeared to improve, McKinley eventually died on September 14, 1901 in the Milburn home due to infection and gangrene from the gun shot wounds.&#13;
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